In the developing embryo, the primary vascular network is established by in situ differentiation of mesodermal cells in a process called vasculogenesis. It is believed that all subsequent processes involving the generation of new vessels in the embryo and neovascularization in adults, are governed by the sprouting or splitting of new capillaries from the pre-existing vasculature in a process called angiogenesis (Pepper et al., 1996, Enzyme & Protein, 49:38–162; Breier et al., 1995, Dev. Dyn., 204:228–239; Risau, 1997, Nature, 386:671–674). Angiogenesis is not only involved in embryonic development and normal tissue growth, repair, and regeneration, but is also involved in the female reproductive cycle, establishment and maintenance of pregnancy, and in repair of wounds and fractures. In addition to angiogenesis which takes place in the normal individual, angiogenic events are involved in a number of pathological processes, notably tumor growth and metastasis, and other conditions in which blood vessel proliferation, especially of the microvascular system, is increased, such as diabetic retinopathy, psoriasis and arthropathies. Inhibition of angiogenesis is useful in preventing or alleviating these pathological processes.
On the other hand, promotion of angiogenesis is desirable in situations where vascularization is to be established or extended, for example after tissue or organ transplantation, or to stimulate establishment of collateral circulation in tissue infarction or arterial stenosis, such as in coronary heart disease and thromboangitis obliterans.
The angiogenic process is highly complex and involves the maintenance of the endothelial cells in the cell cycle, degradation of the extracellular matrix, migration and invasion of the surrounding tissue and finally, tube formation. The molecular mechanisms underlying the complex angiogenic processes are far from being understood.
Because of the crucial role of angiogenesis in so many physiological and pathological processes, factors involved in the control of angiogenesis have been intensively investigated. A number of growth factors have been shown to be involved in the regulation of angiogenesis; these include fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), transforming growth factor alpha (TGFα), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). See for example Folkman et al., 1992, J. Biol. Chem., 267:10931–10934 for a review.
It has been suggested that a particular family of endothelial cell-specific growth factors, the vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs), and their corresponding receptors are primarily responsible for stimulation of endothelial cell growth and differentiation, and for certain functions of the differentiated cells. These factors are members of the PDGF family, and appear to act primarily via endothelial receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs).
Eight different proteins have been identified in the PDGF family, namely two PDGFs (A and B), VEGF and five members that are closely related to VEGF. The five members closely related to VEGF are: VEGF-B, described in International Patent Application PCT/US96/02957 (WO 96/26736) which corresponds to U.S. Pat. No. 5,928,939, and in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,840,693 and 5,607,918 to Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research and The University of Helsinki; VEGF-C or VEGF-2, described in Joukov et al., 1996, EMBO J., 15:290–298 and Lee et al., 1996, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93:1988–1992, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,932,540, 5,935,820 and 6,040,157; VEGF-D, described in International Patent Application No. PCT/US97/14696 (WO 98/07832), and Achen et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:548–553; the placenta growth factor (PlGF), described in Maglione et al., 1991, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:9267–9271; and VEGF3, described in International Patent Application Nos. PCT/US95/07283 (WO 96/39421) and PCT/US99/18054 (WO 00/09148) by Human Genome Sciences, Inc. Each VEGF family member has between 30% and 45% amino acid sequence identity with VEGF. The VEGF family members share a VEGF homology domain which contains the six cysteine residues which form the cysteine knot motif. Functional characteristics of the VEGF family include varying degrees of mitogenicity for endothelial cells, induction of vascular permeability and angiogenic and lymphangiogenic properties.
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a homodimeric glycoprotein that has been isolated from several sources. VEGF shows highly specific mitogenic activity for endothelial cells. VEGF has important regulatory functions in the formation of new blood vessels during embryonic vasculogenesis and in angiogenesis during adult life (Carmeliet et al., 1996, Nature, 380:435–439; Ferrara et al., 1996, Nature, 380:439–442; reviewed in Ferrara and Davis-Smyth, 1997, Endocrine Rev., 18:4–25). The significance of the role played by VEGF has been demonstrated in studies showing that inactivation of a single VEGF allele results in embryonic lethality due to failed development of the vasculature (Carmeliet et al., 1996, Nature, 380:435–439; Ferrara et al., 1996, Nature, 380:439–442). In addition VEGF has strong chemoattractant activity towards monocytes, can induce the plasminogen activator and the plasminogen activator inhibitor in endothelial cells, and can also induce microvascular permeability. Because of the latter activity, it is sometimes referred to as vascular permeability factor (VPF). The isolation and properties of VEGF have been reviewed; see Ferrara et al., 1991, J. Cellular Biochem., 47:211–218 and Connolly, J., 1991, Cellular Biochem., 47:219–223. Alterative mRNA splicing of a single VEGF gene gives rise to five isoforms of VEGF.
VEGF-B has similar angiogenic and other properties to those of VEGF, but is distributed and expressed in tissues differently from VEGF. In particular, VEGF-B is very strongly expressed in heart, and only weakly in lung, whereas the reverse is the case for VEGF. This suggests that VEGF and VEGF-B, despite the fact that they are co-expressed in many tissues, may have functional differences.
VEGF-B was isolated using a yeast co-hybrid interaction trap screening technique by screening for cellular proteins which might interact with cellular retinoid acid-binding protein type I (CRABP-I). Its isolation and characteristics are described in detail in PCT/US96/02957 and in Olofsson et al., 1996, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93:2576–2581.
VEGF-C was isolated from conditioned media of the PC-3 prostate adenocarcinoma cell line (CRL1435) by screening for ability of the medium to produce tyrosine phosphorylation of the endothelial cell-specific receptor tyrosine kinase VEGFR-3 (Flt4), using cells transfected to express VEGFR-3. VEGF-C was purified using affinity chromatography with recombinant VEGFR-3, and was cloned from a PC-3 cDNA library. Its isolation and characteristics are described in detail in Joukov et al., 1996, EMBO J., 15:290–298.
VEGF-D was isolated from a human breast cDNA library, commercially available from Clontech, by screening with an expressed sequence tag obtained from a human cDNA library designated “Soares Breast 3NbHBst” as a hybridization probe (Achen et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:548–553). Its isolation and characteristics are described in detail in International Patent Application No. PCT/US97/14696 (WO98/07832).
The VEGF-D gene is broadly expressed in the adult human, but is certainly not ubiquitously expressed. VEGF-D is strongly expressed in heart, lung and skeletal muscle. Intermediate levels of VEGF-D are expressed in spleen, ovary, small intestine and colon, and a lower expression occurs in kidney, pancreas, thymus, prostate and testis. No VEGF-D mRNA was detected in RNA from brain, placenta, liver or peripheral blood leukocytes.
PlGF was isolated from a term placenta cDNA library. Its isolation and characteristics are described in detail in Maglione et al., 1991, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:9267–9271. Presently its biological function is not well understood.
VEGF3 was isolated from a cDNA library derived from colon tissue. VEGF3 is stated to have about 36% identity and 66% similarity to VEGF. The method of isolation of the gene encoding VEGF3 is unclear and no characterization of the biological activity is disclosed.
Similarity between two proteins is determined by comparing the amino acid sequence and conserved amino acid substitutions of one of the proteins to the sequence of the second protein, whereas identity is determined without including the conserved amino acid substitutions.
PDGF/VEGF family members act primarily by binding to receptor tyrosine kinases. Five endothelial cell-specific receptor tyrosine kinases have been identified, namely VEGFR-1 (Flt-1), VEGFR-2 (KDR/Flk-1), VEGFR-3 (Flt4), Tie and Tek/Tie-2. All of these have the intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity which is necessary for signal transduction. The essential, specific role in vasculogenesis and angiogenesis of VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, VEGFR-3, Tie and Tek/Tie-2 has been demonstrated by targeted mutations inactivating these receptors in mouse embryos.
The only receptor tyrosine kinases known to bind VEGFs are VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3. VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 bind VEGF with high affinity, and VEGFR-1 also binds VEGF-B and PlGF. VEGF-C has been shown to be the ligand for VEGFR-3, and it also activates VEGFR-2 (Joukov et al., 1996, The EMBO Journal, 15:290–298). VEGF-D binds to both VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3. A ligand for Tek/Tie-2 has been described in International Patent Application No. PCT/US95/12935 (WO 96/11269) by Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc. The ligand for Tie has not yet been identified.
Recently, a novel 130–135 kDa VEGF isoform specific receptor has been purified and cloned (Soker et al., 1998, Cell, 92:735–745). The VEGF receptor was found to specifically bind the VEGF165 isoform via the exon 7 encoded sequence, which shows weak affinity for heparin (Soker et al., 1998, Cell, 92:735–745). Surprisingly, the receptor was shown to be identical to human neuropilin-1 (NP-1), a receptor involved in early stage neuromorphogenesis. PlGF-2 also appears to interact with NP-1 (Migdal et al., 1998, J. Biol. Chem., 273:22272–22278).
VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 are expressed differently by endothelial cells. Both VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 are expressed in blood vessel endothelia (Oelrichs et al., 1992, Oncogene, 8:11–18; Kaipainen et al., 1993, J. Exp. Med., 178:2077–2088; Dumont et al., 1995, Dev. Dyn., 203:80–92; Fong et al., 1996, Dev. Dyn., 207:1–10) and VEGFR-3 is mostly expressed in the lymphatic endothelium of adult tissues (Kaipainen et al., 1995, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 9:3566–3570). VEGFR-3 is also expressed in the blood vasculature surrounding tumors.
Disruption of the VEGFR genes results in aberrant development of the vasculature leading to embryonic lethality around midgestation. Analysis of embryos carrying a completely inactivated VEGFR-1 gene suggests that this receptor is required for functional organization of the endothelium (Fong et al., 1995, Nature, 376:66–70). However, deletion of the intracellular tyrosine kinase domain of VEGFR-1 generates viable mice with a normal vasculature (Hiratsuka et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:9349–9354). The reasons underlying these differences remain to be explained but suggest that receptor signalling via the tyrosine kinase is not required for the proper function of VEGFR-1. Analysis of homozygous mice with inactivated alleles of VEGFR-2 suggests that this receptor is required for endothelial cell proliferation, hematopoesis and vasculogenesis (Shalaby et al., 1995, Nature, 376:62–66; Shalaby et al., 1997, Cell, 89:981–990). Inactivation of VEGFR-3 results in cardiovascular failure due to abnormal organization of the large vessels (Dumont et al., 1998, Science, 282:946–949).
Although VEGFR-1 is mainly expressed in endothelial cells during development, it can also be found in hematopoetic precursor cells during early stages of embryogenesis (Fong et al., 1995, Nature, 376:66–70). It is also is expressed by most, if not all, vessels in embryos (Breier et al., 1995, Dev. Dyn., 204:228–239; Fong et al., 1996, Dev. Dyn., 207:1–10). In adults, monocytes and macrophages also express this receptor (Barleon et al., 1996, Blood, 87:3336–3343).
The receptor VEGFR-3 is widely expressed on endothelial cells during early embryonic development, but as embryogenesis proceeds, it becomes restricted to venous endothelium and then to the lymphatic endothelium (Kaipainen et al., 1994, Cancer Res., 54:6571–6577; Kaipainen et al., 1995, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92:3566–3570). VEGFR-3 continues to be expressed on lymphatic endothelial cells in adults. This receptor is essential for vascular development during embryogenesis. Targeted inactivation of both copies of the VEGFR-3 gene in mice resulted in defective blood vessel formation characterized by abnormally organized large vessels with defective lumens, leading to fluid accumulation in the pericardial cavity and cardiovascular failure at post-coital day 9.5. On the basis of these findings it has been proposed that VEGFR-3 is required for the maturation of primary vascular networks into larger blood vessels. However, the role of VEGFR-3 in the development of the lymphatic vasculature could not be studied in these mice because the embryos died before the lymphatic system emerged. Nevertheless it is assumed that VEGFR-3 plays a role in development of the lymphatic vasculature and lymphangiogenesis given its specific expression in lymphatic endothelial cells during embryogenesis and adult life. This is supported by the finding that ectopic expression of VEGF-C, a ligand for VEGFR-3, in the skin of transgenic mice, resulted in lymphatic endothelial cell proliferation and vessel enlargement in the dermis. Furthermore this suggests that VEGF-C may have a primary function in lymphatic endothelium, and a secondary function in angiogenesis and permeability regulation which is shared with VEGF (Joukov et al., 1996, EMBO J., 15:290–298).
Some inhibitors of the VEGF/VEGF-receptor system have been shown to prevent tumor growth via an anti-angiogenic mechanism; see Kim et al., 1993, Nature, 362:841–844 and Saleh et al., 1996, Cancer Res., 56:393–401.
As mentioned above, the VEGF family of growth factors are members of the PDGF family. PDGF plays an important role in the growth and/or motility of connective tissue cells, fibroblasts, myofibroblasts and glial cells (Heldin et al., “Structure of platelet-derived growth factor: Implications for functional properties”, 1993, Growth Factor, 8:245–252). In adults, PDGF stimulates wound healing (Robson et al., 1992, Lancet, 339:23–25). Structurally, PDGF isoforms are disulfide-bonded dimers of homologous A- and B-polypeptide chains, arranged as homodimers (PDGF-AA and PDGF-BB) or a heterodimer (PDGF-AB).
PDGF isoforms exert their effects on target cells by binding to two structurally related receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). The alpha-receptor binds both the A- and B-chains of PDGF, whereas the beta-receptor binds only the B-chain. These two receptors are expressed by many cell lines grown in vitro, and are mainly expressed by mesenchymal cells in vivo. The PDGFs regulate cell proliferation, cell survival and chemotaxis of many cell types in vitro (reviewed in Heldin et al., 1998, Biochim Biophys Acta., 1378:F79–113). In vivo, they exert their effects in a paracrine mode since they often are expressed in epithelial (PDGF-A) or endothelial cells (PDGF-B) in close apposition to the PDGFR expressing mesenchyme. In tumor cells and in cell lines grown in vitro, coexpression of the PDGFs and the receptors generate autocrine loops which are important for cellular transformation (Betsholtz et al., 1984, Cell, 39:447–57; Keating et al., 1990, J. R. Coll Surg Edinb., 35:172–4). Overexpression of the PDGFs have been observed in several pathological conditions, including malignancies, arteriosclerosis, and fibroproliferative diseases (reviewed in Heldin et al., 1996, The Molecular and Cellular Biology of Wound Repair, New York: Plenum Press, 249–273).
The importance of the PDGFs as regulators of cell proliferation and survival are well illustrated by recent gene targeting studies in mice that have shown distinct physiological roles for the PDGFs and their receptors despite the overlapping ligand specificities of the PDGFRs. Homozygous null mutations for either of the two PDGF ligands or the receptors are lethal. Approximately 50% of the homozygous PDGF-A deficient mice have an early lethal phenotype, while the surviving animals have a complex postnatal phenotype with lung emphysema due to improper alveolar septum formation because of a lack of alveolar myofibroblasts (Boström et al., 1996, Cell, 85:863–873). The PDGF-A deficient mice also have a dermal phenotype characterized by thin dermis, misshapen hair follicles and thin hair (Karlsson et al., 1999, Development, 126:2611–2). PDGF-A is also required for normal development of oligodendrocytes and subsequent myelination of the central nervous system (Fruttiger et al., 1999, Development, 126:457–67). The phenotype of PDGFR-alpha deficient mice is more severe with early embryonic death at E10, incomplete cephalic closure, impaired neural crest development, cardiovascular defects, skeletal defects, and edemas (Soriano et al., 1997, Development, 124:2691–70). The PDGF-B and PDGFR-beta deficient mice develop similar phenotypes that are characterized by renal, hematological and cardiovascular abnormalities (Levéen et al., 1994, Genes Dev., 8:1875–1887; Soriano et al., 1994, Genes Dev., 8:1888–96; Lindahl et al., 1997, Science, 277:242–5; Lindahl, 1998, Development, 125:3313–2), where the renal and cardiovascular defects, at least in part, are due to the lack of proper recruitment of mural cells (vascular smooth muscle cells, pericytes or mesangial cells) to blood vessels (Levéen et al., 1994, Genes Dev., 8:1875–1887; Lindahl et al., 1997, Science, 277:242–5; Lindahl et al., 1998, Development, 125:3313–2).
Most recently, an additional member of the PDGF/VEGF family of growth factors was identified, PDGF-C. PDGF-C is described in International Patent Application PCT/US99/22668 (WO 00/18212), filed Sep. 30, 1999. PDGF-C has a two-domain structure not previously recognized within this family of growth factors, a N-terminal C1r/C1s/embryonic sea urchin protein Uegf/bone morphogenetic protein 1 (CUB) domain, and a C-terminal PDGF/VEGF homology domain (P/VHD). The structure of the P/VHD in PDGF-C shows a low overall sequence identity with other PDGF/VEGF homology domains, although the eight invariant cysteine residues involved in inter- and intra-molecular disulfide bond formation are present. The cysteine spacing in the central, most conserved region of this domain is different from other PDGF/VEGF domains, with an insertion of three amino acid residues. Despite the fact that the insertion occurs close to the loop 2 region which has been proposed to be involved in receptor binding, it was shown that this domain of PDGF-CC binds PDGFR-alpha with almost identical affinities as homodimers of PDGF-A or -B chains. In addition, four extra cysteine residues are present in this domain. Full length and truncated PDGF-CC were found not to bind to VEGFR-1, -2 or -3, or to PDGFR-beta.
PDGF-C requires proteolytic removal of the N-terminal CUB domain for receptor binding and activation of the receptor. This indicates that the CUB domains are likely to sterically block the receptor binding epitopes of the unprocessed dimer. The in vitro and in vivo proteolytically processed proteins are devoid of N-terminal portions corresponding to more than 14–16 kDa as determined from SDS-PAGE analysis which is consistent with a loss of the 110 amino acid long CUB domain and a part of the hinge region between the CUB and core domains that vary in length.
PDGF-C is not proteolytically processed during secretion in transfected COS cells indicating that proteolytic removal of the CUB domain occurs extracellularly, and not during secretion. This is in contrast to PDGF-A and -B (Östman et al., 1992, J. Cell. Biol., 118:509–519) which appear to be processed intracellularly by furin-like endoproteases (Nakayama et al., 1997, Biochem J., 327:625–635).
Northern blots show PDGF-C mRNA in a variety of human tissues, including heart, liver, kidney, pancreas and ovary.
In situ localization studies demonstrate expression of PDGF-C in certain epithelial structures, and PDGFR-alpha in adjacent mesenchyme, indicating the potential of paracrine signaling in the developing embryo. PDGF-C expression seems particularly abundant at sites of ongoing ductal morphogenesis, indicating a role of the factor in connective tissue remodeling at these sites. The expression pattern is distinct from that of PDGF-A or PDGF-B indicating that the three growth factors have different roles despite their similar PDGFR-alpha binding and signaling activities. This is illustrated by the mouse embryonic kidney, in which PDGF-C is expressed in early aggregates of metanephric mesenchyme undergoing epithelial conversion, whereas PDGF-A is expressed in more mature tubular structures, and PDGF-B by vascular endothelial cells. PDGFR-alpha is expressed in the mesenchyme of the kidney cortex, adjacent to the sites of PDGF-C expression, indicating that this mesenchyme may be targeted specifically by PDGF-C. Indeed, PDGFR-alpha −/− mouse embryos show an extensive loss of the cortical mesenchyme adjacent to sites of PDGF-C expression, not seen in PDGF-A −/− mice or in PDGF-A/B −/− mice, indicating that PDGF-C has an essential role in the development of kidney mesenchyme.